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Hebrews and James J. Brian Tucker, Ph.D. Moody Theological
Seminary
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2 Hebrews and James I. Key Facts II. History III. Literature III.
Theological Themes
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KEY FACTS Author: Unknown Date: c. 65 Provenance: Unknown
Destination: Jewish-Christian congregation(s) in Rome Occasion: Persecution of
Christians causing some to revert back to Judaism Purpose: To warn people in
these Jewish-Christian congregations against reverting back to Judaism in order
to avoid being persecuted as Christians Theme: The supremacy of Christ over OT
antecedent figures and other intermediaries Key Verses: 12:1–2
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INTRODUCTION Written in the most classical style of Greek in the
NT, it reflects distinctly Jewish hermeneutics. The author calls the document a
brief “word of exhortation” (13:22), but it is in fact one of the longest
letters in the NT.
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INTRODUCTION While Hebrews has been acknowledged as one of the
greatest works of theology in the NT, it struggled for full canonical
acceptance longer than any other NT book. With its emphasis on the unmatched,
eternal high priesthood of Jesus Christ and the once-for-all character of his
substitutionary sacrifice, Hebrews makes a vital and indispensable contribution
to the Christian canon.
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HISTORY Authorship Date Provenance Destination Occasion and
Purpose
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Authorship It has been suggested that the author of Hebrews is
“one of the three great theologians of the New Testament.” Few scholars today
believe Paul wrote Hebrews. First, the language of the book is quite different
from Paul’s in his letters. Second, and perhaps most damaging, is that the
writer says that he heard the gospel from those who received it from Christ
(see 2:3)—something Paul vehemently denied about himself elsewhere (Gal
1:11–16; see 1 Cor 15:8).
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Authorship In lieu of Pauline authorship, a long parade of
candidates has been proposed as the possible writer of Hebrews: Clement of Rome
Barnabas Apollos Luke Silas Priscilla Philip Mary the mother of Jesus Each of
these, except for Luke, has the same problem: we have no known documents by
these authors to compare with Hebrews.
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Authorship While the author’s precise identity remains elusive, it
is possible to infer a few pieces of information regarding the writer from the
letter itself. (1) The author was male (masculine participle in 11:32). (2) The
author was obviously a gifted and eloquent writer, displaying an impressive
command of ancient rhetoric. (3) The author was well educated. (4) He is most
likely Jewish, showing familial relations with his readers. (5) The writer was
familiar with the Greek OT (the LXX). (6) The author was a second-generation
believer (see 2:3).
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Authorship Given the circumstances, therefore, it is best to admit
that the authorship of Hebrews is unknown. The document itself is formally
anonymous, that is, the author does not name himself. The author fully expected
the recipients of his letter to know him and to heed his message.
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Date The author’s claim that he and his readers were
second-generation Christians (2:3) must be taken into account. The author
indicated that some time had elapsed after his readers’ conversion (5:12), and
after they had been persecuted for their faith in the past (10:32; 12:4),
urging them to remember their leaders and to follow their example, “considering
the outcome of their conduct” (13:7).
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Date The latest possible date is late in the first century since
Clement of Rome (c. 96) was clearly influenced by the letter (indisputably 1
Clem. 36:1–6). If one adds to this the fact that the letter must have been
written in Timothy’s lifetime (13:23) and during the life span of a
second-generation Christian (2:3), this places the upper limit of the letter at
about the time of Clement. The letter was in all probability written before the
Jewish War, including the destruction of the Jewish temple in the year 70,
since the writer speaks of the sacerdotal ministry in the present tense
(9:6–10).
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Date The experience of believers mentioned in the book is entirely
congruent with the time period subsequent to the edict of Claudius (c. 49) and
the persecution of Christians under Nero (64–66). A date in the first half of
the AD 60s is most likely because these believers were undergoing persecution
at the time of writing, but not to the point of martyrdom (12:4). A date in the
mid-60s seems most likely.
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Provenance The only possible internal piece of evidence is 13:24,
which states, “Those who are from Italy greet you.” This indicates a Roman
destination while leaving the question of the letter’s provenance open.
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Destination The question of the letter’s destination encompasses
several factors: The ethnic makeup of the congregation(s) being addressed The
geographical location of the recipients Any other characteristics of the
original recipients or their situation at the time of writing
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Destination The recipients’ ethnic makeup The first major argument
in favor of a Jewish Christian audience of Hebrews is bound up with the title
of the book. The second major argument for a Jewish Christian audience is
related to the pervasive use of the OT in the book.
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Destination The Audience’s Geographical Location The only possible
clue in this regard is found in 13:24, which states, “Those who are from Italy
greet you.” Guthrie advocates a Roman destination based on the following set of
arguments: “From Italy” is used in Acts 18:2 for Aquila and Priscilla, who were
Italian expatriates.
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Destination The reference to pastors as “leaders” (hegoumenoi) in
Hebrews (13:7, 17, 24) is paralleled outside of the NT only in 1 Clement (c.
95) and the Shepherd of Hermas (early second century?), both of which are of
Roman origin. 1 Clement (written in Rome) made extensive use of Hebrews, so the
earliest evidence of the book’s existence comes from Rome.
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Destination All this evidence fits well with the audience being
Hebrew Christians in Rome in the mid-60s. They are second-generation Christians
(2:3), that is, the author looked back to the apostles as belonging to the preceding
spiritual generation. While they had been believers for some time, they had
regressed in their growth in Christ (5:11–6:3), and some had stopped attending
the weekly assembly (10:25).
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Destination They had endured “a hard struggle with sufferings” at
their conversion (10:32), had their property seized, and had endured this ill
treatment joyfully (10:34). They were currently under pressure (12:3–13),
though they had yet to suffer to the point of martyrdom (12:4), but there was
an expectation of more severe suffering in the future (13:12–14). A Jewish
Christian tempted to escape persecution thus may have found it appealing to
retreat back under the protective umbrella of Judaism.
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Occasion and Purpose Hebrews was most likely written to a
congregation of Jewish Christians who were urged to move on to maturity (see
5:11–6:8) in the face of looming persecution. The author described his writing
as a “word of exhortation” (13:22), a phrase found elsewhere in the NT only in
Acts 13:15, where it refers to a synagogue homily (sermon).
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Occasion and Purpose The essence of the appeal can be found in the
three exhortations at 10:19–25 (marked in English by “let us”). The first is
“let us draw near with a true heart in full assurance of faith, our hearts
sprinkled clean from an evil conscience and our bodies washed in pure water”
(v. 22). The second injunction is in v. 23: “Let us hold on to the confession
of our hope without wavering, for He who promised is faithful.”
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Occasion and Purpose The third exhortation further enjoins
believers to express that faith to one another: “Let us be concerned about one
another in order to promote love and good works” (10:24). This triad of concerns
climaxes at 12:1–2, where believers are encouraged to “run with endurance the
race that lies before us.”
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Occasion and Purpose The purpose of Hebrews is not merely to
maintain believers’ confession in the face of persecution, but also that they
would move on to full maturity in Christ by holding fast to their confession.
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LITERATURE Genre Literary Plan Outline
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Genre The letter opens and proceeds like a work of rhetoric but
closes like a letter. The author described his piece of writing as a “word of
exhortation” (13:22). Whether or not a specific type of sermon can be
identified, the description “homily” or “sermon” certainly seems to fit the
book well.
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Genre There are four phenomena that support the notion that this
work derived from an oral original. The author referred to himself in the first
person (both singular and plural, asserting authority and identifying with his
hearers). He cast his activity as an act of speaking, not writing. When making
such a self-reference, he generally used verbs of speaking rather than words of
writing. He alternated exposition and exhortation, which “allows an orator to
drive home points immediately without losing the hearers’ attention.” The
author introduced a theme only to explain it later in his work.
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Genre It may be concluded that Hebrews was in all probability
first delivered as a series of oral messages and subsequently compiled and
edited for publication as a letter, which included attaching an epistolary
ending.
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Literary Plan Some scholars understand the book to be arranged
into five parts generally arranged chiastically. Others see in the letter a
rhetorical structure following the conventions of ancient rhetoric that
basically arranges the text in five sections.
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Literary Plan The most likely arrangement is to divide Hebrews
into three major literary units: 1:1–4:13 (marked by hymnic portions);
4:14–10:31 (marked by parallel hortatory subjunctives); and 10:32–13:17 (marked
by parallel imperatives).
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Argument of Hebrews Introduction 1:1-3 [Follows Chris Miller and
Robert Gromacki; http://chrismiller.cedarville.org/content/hebri.pdf; and New Testament Survey] In the first section and in fact in
the first verse the author introduces us to and summarizes his argument: God .
. . has spoken . . . in His Son. The focus is upon the revelation of God. This
revelation is greater than previous revelation because of the medium through
which it has come, namely, God Himself. This simple concept (God has spoken)
serves as the basis for the argument of the book from which two major
applications are drawn.
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Argument of Hebrews Comparison of the Former Revelation to the
Latter Revelation 1:1-2a The author compares all previous revelation with the
revelation given through Christ. All which has come before has come through
human messengers. This latest revelation was delivered by God Himself in the
person of Christ.
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Argument of Hebrews Credentials of the Son to Speak for the Father
1:2b-3 This section makes clear that Jesus is qualified to speak for the
Father. The Son's position, work, character and exaltation all undeniably
qualify Him as the Spokesman par execellence for the Father.
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Argument of Hebrews This Greater Revelation Demands Greater
Obedience 1:4-4:16 The first implication of having received greater revelation
is that the recipients are under greater obligation to obey it. If previous
generations of God’s people received revelation and neglected it (as the
current congregation is in danger of doing) they were certainly punished. Thus,
if we neglect a greater revelation, our punishment will be even more severe.
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Argument of Hebrews This Greater Revelation Demands Greater
Obedience 1:4-4:16 The author draws two examples from the Old Testament, one
general and one specific, to prove his case. In both examples he is careful to
point out the difference in the revelation by following the comparison with
which he began (1:1-2) between the different messengers of that revelation. In
chapters one through two the messengers which now serve as a foil for Christ
were angels; in chapters three through four, Moses.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by Comparison with the General
Case of Those Who Turned from the Law 1:4-2:18 If the context of this section
(1:4-2:18) is not considered one might mistakenly think that the author's point
is simply a comparison between the person of Christ and that of angels. But it
must be kept in mind that the motif/pattern/strategy already announced by the
writer (1:1-2) is to demonstrate the finality and greatness of this most recent
revelation by asserting the superiority of the messenger.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by Comparison with the General
Case of Those Who Turned from the Law 1:4-2:18 The focus is not upon the
messengers per se but only as their inherent quality reflects upon the
importance and thus, the finality of the message. Thus, the comparison between
Christ and angels is not for the ultimate goal of asserting his preeminence
over angels.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by Comparison with the General
Case of Those Who Turned from the Law 1:4-2:18 If this were the writer's only
concern the comment by A. B. Bruce would certainly be appropriate (for us and
certainly for those well informed, though perhaps stalled recipients) "the
thing to be proved is so much a matter of course." The pinnacle of his
argument concerns the comparison between "the word spoken through angels"
and "so great a salvation [grace] which we must not neglect" (2:2-4).
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by Comparison with the General
Case of Those Who Turned from the Law 1:4-2:18 The word spoken through angels
is, as Stephen would agree (Acts 7:53) the Law. The reference then to those who
"transgressed" and "disobeyed" it (2:2) is evidently a
general reference to any and all who in the Old Testament were punished for
disobedience, in contrast to chapters 3-4 where a specific generation is mentioned.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by Comparison with the General
Case of Those Who Turned from the Law 1:4-2:18 The writer's basic strategy then
from 1:4-2:4 may be best understood as a fortiori, moving from the lesser to
the greater, the simple to the more difficult or the proven to the unproven. He
moves from that which no one will contest (the superiority of Christ to that of
angels) to prove that which has escaped their notice (His revelation therefore
demands greater obedience).
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by Comparison with the General
Case of Those Who Turned from the Law 1:4-2:18 That which enables Him to be a
better revealer than the angels of God to men is basically twofold: He is at
once both God (1:4-14) and man (2:4-18), of which angels are neither.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by the Comparison of the Specific
Case of Those Who Turned From Moses 3:1-4:16 Having established his basic
premise in 1:4-2:18, the author now reinforces that premise with a second, more
specific and graphic illustration: Moses and the wilderness generation. Once
again we find a comparison between Jesus and another medium of revelation
(Revelator). As before, however, the author's ultimate goal is not simply to
assert the superiority of the person, but rather the relative importance of the
revelation given.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by the Comparison of the Specific
Case of Those Who Turned From Moses 3:1-4:16 That the author's comparison
concerns revelation is clear from his analogy of a house and its stewards. He
evidently draws from Moses' experience in Numbers 12, where Aaron and Miriam
began to question Moses' ability as a spokesman for God. And they said, 'Has
the LORD indeed spoken only through Moses? Has He not spoken through us as
well?' And the LORD heard it (12:2). God's response concerning Moses' position
as recipient of revelation is forceful:
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by the Comparison of the Specific
Case of Those Who Turned From Moses 3:1-4:16 He said, "Hear now My words:
If there is a prophet among you, I, the LORD, shall make myself known to him in
a vision. I shall speak with him in a dream. Not so, with My servant Moses, He
is faithful in all My household; with him I speak mouth to mouth, even openly,
and not in dark sayings, and He beholds the form of the Lord. Why then were you
not afraid to speak against My servant, against Moses?" (Numbers 12:6-8).
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by the Comparison of the Specific
Case of Those Who Turned From Moses 3:1-4:16 Once the point is made, the author
moves to the application, to hold fast to the revelation given by Jesus. Two
particular situations motivate the reader: 1) the historical example (3:7-19)
of those who disobeyed Moses and thus failed to enter the rest of Palestine and
2) the eschatological hope (4:1-10) of ultimate millennial rest which the
reader will miss if he fails to obey this greater revelation.
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Argument of Hebrews Illustrated by the Comparison of the Specific
Case of Those Who Turned From Moses 3:1-4:16 The section closes appropriately
with an exhortation concerning the power of the revelation of God and its
ability to pierce our inner thoughts (rationalizations about unbelief).
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Argument of Hebrews This Greater Revelation Displaces Older
Revelation 5:1-12:29 Having laid the groundwork concerning the necessity of
obedience the author now moves to his second and perhaps more crucial point
that this newer revelation displaces older revelation. The shock which this
must have given a first century Jew must be understood. For a millennia and a
half the primary test of a prophet was doctrinal: "Did his message agree
with Moses?".
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Argument of Hebrews This Greater Revelation Displaces Older
Revelation 5:1-12:29 All revelation which had come from Judges to Malachi
either explained, applied or built upon the bedrock foundation of the
Pentateuch. Now for the first time revelation has come which demands that Moses
be set aside. The skepticism with which this teaching was met is
understandable. For this reason the author spends two chapters introducing his
main point.
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Argument of Hebrews Introduction of The Theme 5:1-6:20 If the
author is to succeed in persuading his Jewish audience he must base his
argument on more than his personal authority. It is necessary that he prove his
point about displacing Old Testament from revelation, which he does drawing
from two grand patriarchs, David (Psalm 110) and Moses himself (Genesis 14).
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Argument of Hebrews Jesus is a Melchizedekian priest 5:1-10 He
makes the point that Jesus is a priest like Melchizedek but does not draw the
all important and (perhaps not immediately appreciated) implication until
chapter 7. Before that all too delicate subject is broached the author feels
the need to give a warning and a reassurance.
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Argument of Hebrews The gravity of this theme for audience
5:11-6:12 The warning (5:11-6:12) encourages the people to move on in their
understanding of the revelation of God. For everyone who partakes only of milk
is not accustomed to the word of righteousness . . . but solid food is for the
mature . . . . Therefore leaving the elementary teaching about the Christ, let
us press on to maturity . . . . (5:13-6:1). If they don't move on they may find
themselves in a situation similar to the generation which experienced the full
revelation and miracles of Jesus, yet rejected Him and ultimately were cursed
(6:4-12).
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Argument of Hebrews Reassurance of God's commitment to keep His
promises made in the old revelation: His promise and oath to Abraham 6:13-20
The reassurance (6:13-20) seems designed to meet the natural reaction to the
truth which is next presented. If the new revelation displaces Moses then the next
question would most likely be, "Has God forgotten his promises to bless
Abraham and his seed?" The answer comes powerfully in 6:13-20 that not
only has God not forgotten his promises to the Jew but that it is Jesus
himself, who, by being a priest like Melchizedek, will fulfill those promises.
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Argument of Hebrews Elaboration Of The Theme 7:1-10:39 The author
now begins to unfold the implications from Jesus' priesthood, in this the heart
of the epistle.
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Argument of Hebrews Jesus' priesthood displaces Aaronic priesthood
7:1-28 Already having established that Jesus is a priest like Melchizedek he
now demonstrates that Jesus' priesthood is superior to and therefore replaces
the aaronic priesthood (7:1-10). He then notes that of course the laws of the
Pentateuch regulating the levitical priesthood are no longer relevant under the
administration of Christ. This is why . . . when the priesthood is changed, of
necessity there takes place a change of Law also (7:12).
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Argument of Hebrews Jesus' priesthood displaces Aaronic priesthood
7:1-28 Thus the laws of Moses must be displaced with new revelation which
regulates worship appropriate to the new dispensation.
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Argument of Hebrews Jesus' priesthood requires a new covenant
which replaces the old covenant 8:1-10:18 What was implied in chapter seven is
now stated clearly.
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Argument of Hebrews Statement of principle: A new covenant must
replace an old covenant 8:1-13 Since a new priest has undeniably been
inaugurated (8:1-3) and since His priesthood is incompatible with the laws
governing the old priesthood (8:4-5) it is necessary that a new covenant
replace the old one (8:6-12). Thus it is now time for the promise given through
Jeremiah to be realized and thus to replace Moses (8:13).
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Argument of Hebrews Statement of relevance: The new covenant is in
fact in effect and has displaced the old 9:1-28 The author first recalls the
state of affairs under the old covenant (9:1-10). He remembers that the whole
arrangement was off-putting for man since it attempted to accomplish the
impossible: provide fellowship between a holy God and sinful man. Christ
however has effected redemption and thus allows the believer access to God
(9:11) and cleansing from sin (9:12-14).
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Argument of Hebrews Statement of relevance: The new covenant is in
fact in effect and has displaced the old 9:1-28 Not only is this change now in
effect, but it took place at his death (9:15-28). Every covenant is inaugurated
with blood. The old by Moses at Sinai, the new by Christ at Calvary. This is
why when Jesus returns a second time it will not be with reference to sin (as
if to die to inaugurate a new covenant) but to reign (9:27-28).
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Argument of Hebrews Statement of specific application: Sacrifice
has become obsolete 10:1-18 Having laid the foundation for this teaching in
chapters 7-9 the author now becomes painfully specific in his application of
truth. Because a new priesthood has replaced an old one and a new covenant has
replaced an old one it is clear that the sacrifices prescribed in Moses are now
obsolete. Once the ultimate forgiveness of the New Covenant has come (10:16-17)
there is no longer a need for the shadow of animal sacrifice (10:18) Now where
there is forgiveness of these things, there is no longer any offering for sin.
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Argument of Hebrews Application of this truth 10:19-39 The
application of chapters seven through ten is very simply that the recipients
ought to hold fast to their profession of faith in their new priest rather than
drift back to one which is no longer operative.
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Argument of Hebrews Application Of The Theme: Respond In Faith To
New Revelation 11:1-12:29 At this point the essentials of the author's message
have been communicated. All that remains is to give a hearty exhortation to
respond to the word by faith and hold fast their confession. Chapter 11 is
replete with examples of people who responded properly to revelation of God
thus providing encouragement to the readers. Chapter 12 involves specific
exhortations to obedience and concludes with a final warning not to turn back.
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Argument of Hebrews Conclusion 13:1-25 The author concludes with
several miscellaneous and specific commands demonstrating his familiarity with,
and concern for, this congregation.
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THEOLOGY Theological Themes Contribution to the Canon
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Theological Themes The God Who Speaks in Scripture The major
source of the theology of Hebrews is clearly the OT Scriptures as interpreted
in the light of Christ’s coming. The use of the OT in Hebrews proceeds from the
assumption of its enduring validity as the word of God (see 1:1; 3:7; 4:12;
13:7). On the basis of this premise, the author also hinted at revelation
beyond the OT, for God is said to speak in the present economy of salvation “by
His Son” (1:2; see 2:1–3).
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Theological Themes The Superiority of the Person and Work of
Christ and His High Priesthood The first major theme of the letter is the supremacy
of the person and work of Christ. On the basis of his uniqueness as a person,
Christ also rendered a unique work, described in Hebrews against the larger
backdrop of the high priesthood of Christ. Christ redeemed his “brothers”
(i.e., human beings) in that he tasted death for everyone, and thus he
functioned as their high priest in making the sacrifice (see 2:17).
Slide 67
Theological Themes Christ was a priest like Melchizedek in that he
did not descend from Levi, but even more so because of his eternal existence—he
will never die again. The Levites served in the midst of “shadows” under a
covenant that had become obsolete; Christ is the fulfillment of OT typology,
the minister of the new covenant, which was far superior to the old. His
offering is presented in terms of fulfilling the OT typology of the Day of
Atonement. As a high priest, he sat down at the right hand of the throne of God
and lives forever to make intercession for his people.
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Theological Themes Perseverance and Christian Assurance A key
component of his argument is to warn his hearers of the dangers of not heeding
his call. Within the exhortations of Hebrews are a group of passages (the
warning passages) that sternly warn the hearers about the dangers of not
heeding God’s word. The author affirmed the teaching of Jesus that, by
definition, all true believers endure to the end (Matt 10:22 and parallels).
The author acknowledged that some are related to Christ only superficially.
Slide 69
Theological Themes The all-important contrast, then, is between
those who trusted in God and his promise and those who were connected to God
only nominally, those who in truth resembled a fruitless field good only for
being burnt (6:8).
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Theological Themes The Benefits of the Sacrificial Death of Christ
Hebrews depicts the death of Christ as the superior ultimate sacrifice, offered
once for all (7:27; 8:26), and sealed by Jesus’ ascension to the right hand of
the heavenly throne (1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2). His sacrifice is the blood of the
new covenant (9:15–17; see Jer 31:31–34). Now that the promised new covenant
has been enacted, the old covenant—which was intended to be temporary from the
beginning, only a shadow of the good things to come—has been made obsolete
(8:13).
Slide 71
Theological Themes The Nature of Discipleship At the conclusion of
the letter, the author petitioned God to equip his readers “with all that is
good to do his will, working in us what is pleasing in his sight” (13:21; cf.
5:11). This seems to build on the nature of the new covenant, in which God does
all the foundational work. Believers, above all, need endurance, which they are
already promised (3:14). Thus, the exhortations in chaps. 10–12 construe the
nature of discipleship as running a long-distance race with endurance.
Slide 72
Contribution to the Canon The definitive revelation and redemption
brought by Christ (1:1–4; 7:27; 8:26) Christian perseverance and the warning
passages (e.g., 2:1–4)
Slide 73
Contribution to the Canon The eternal high priesthood of Christ
(4:14–5:10; 7:1–28) The superiority of the new covenant over the old (8:1–9:25)
The example of faith by OT believers (chap. 11)
Slide 74
74 James I. Key Facts II. History III. Literature III. Theological
Themes
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KEY FACTS Author: James, son of Joseph, half-brother of Jesus
Date: c. 45 Provenance: Jerusalem Destination: The Diaspora Jewish Christians
outside Jerusalem
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KEY FACTS Occasion: A circular letter to believers who had fled
Jerusalem because of Agrippa’s persecution Purpose: To exhort Jewish Christians
to live their Christian lives in keeping with wisdom, to act on their faith,
and not to show preferential treatment to the rich Theme: Faith that works Key
Verses: 2:21–22
Slide 78
INTRODUCTION With its scarcity of references to Jesus and the
absence of references to the Holy Spirit, James fits somewhat uneasily in the
NT canon. In essence, James represents an early form of Jewish Christianity
that is firmly grounded in the soil of a Jewish wisdom ethic while having
embraced Jesus as Messiah. This shows that even for Christians there is
considerable value in the wisdom teaching of the OT. Indeed, Christianity
shares considerable ground with Judaism.
Slide 79
INTRODUCTION While the Jewishness of James’s Christianity may make
some readers uncomfortable, they should be careful not to distort James’s
teaching by conforming him to other NT books that are addressed to a Gentile audience.
Slide 80
HISTORY Authorship Date Provenance Destination Occasion
Slide 81
Authorship It claims to be from a certain Iakōbus, Greek for the
Hebrew Ia’acov (Jacob), translated into English as “James.” Although several
figures in the NT carry the name “James,” it is virtually certain that the
“James” referred to at 1:1 is the half-brother of the Lord. The question
debated by scholars is not which James is mentioned, but whether or not the
letter could actually be from James the Just, the half-brother of Jesus.
Slide 82
Authorship Arguments against James’s authorship are essentially
fourfold. First, the writer of the letter is quite skilled in Greek. Second,
the letter lacks specifics expected from James the Just. The third objection to
Jacobean authorship is that the church fathers were late in canonizing the
book. The fourth argument against James’s authorship is that some suggest that
the outlook concerning the Torah in the book is in contrast with what is
otherwise known about James and his commitment to Jewish tradition.
Slide 83
Authorship The following evidence supports the view that James was
the author—James the half-brother of Jesus, or “James the Just,” as he came to
be identified by the early church. (1) The reference to “James, a slave of God
and of the Lord Jesus Christ” at the beginning of the letter (1:1) suggests
that this James was a person with considerable name recognition and equally
great authority (2) Despite claims to the contrary, the writer showed some
evidence of being a Palestinian Jew.
Slide 84
Authorship (3) There are striking verbal similarities to Acts 15.
“Greetings” (chairein) occurs in Jas 1:1 and Acts 15:23 (and elsewhere in Acts
only in 23:16). (4) The man reflected in the letter comports well with James
the half-brother of Jesus as he is portrayed in the rest of the NT (Acts 12:17;
21:18–25; Gal 1:19).
Slide 85
Date Given the absence of conventional indications of time such as
references to specific individuals, places, or events, the letter is rather
difficult to date. If the above discussion of authorship is correct, the book
was written during the lifetime of James the Just, that is, sometime before c.
62 or 63. On the other end of the spectrum, the letter must have been written
subsequent to James’s conversion (see 1 Cor 15:7), that is, no earlier than
approximately 33.
Slide 86
Date The letter must have been written after James became the
prominent leader in the Jerusalem church. This can be dated to around 41/42
(see Acts 12:17). There is no discussion or even acknowledgement of the
question of Gentile inclusion in the church (e.g., Acts 11:1–18) or the
controversy spawned by the Agitators (e.g., Acts 15:5; Gal 2:11–13), much less
the resolution of these issues at the Jerusalem Council in the year 49 (Acts
15:1–21).
Slide 87
Date Thus it seems that the letter was most likely written prior
to the Jerusalem Council and thus prior to Paul’s letters and perhaps even
prior to the Gentile mission. So the most likely range during which the letter
was written spans from 42 until 49.
Slide 88
Provenance Those proposing a different author than James the Just
have offered various locations for the source of the letter, including Rome. If
our views of authorship, date, destination, and occasion are correct, then
Jerusalem may be a possible place of writing, in particular since it is not
known if James spent significant time outside of Palestine during the early
years of the church.
Slide 89
Destination The letter is addressed to “the 12 tribes in the
Dispersion” (1:1). Several features point to a Jewish setting: The reference to
meeting in a synagogue (2:2, HCSB “meeting”) The reference to “Abraham our
father” (2:21) The use of the OT in both direct quotations and allusions The
letter’s resemblance to Jewish wisdom literature The prophetic tone
Slide 90
Destination The term “Dispersion” (1:1) usually refers to Jews
living outside of Palestine (e.g., John 7:35), describing the people of God who
were scattered due to divine judgment but who carried with them the hope of
restoration. Hence it is possible that the recipients were Jewish Christians
somewhere in the area known as the Diaspora, perhaps in Syrian Antioch,
possibly dispersed because of the persecution of Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:1–4;
c. AD 43).
Slide 91
Occasion The letter seems to address specific individuals (the 12
tribes) but not one specific situation. It is best to see James as a general
letter written to give pastoral advice to the recipients, whatever their
specific circumstances. There were precedents for such a letter among Jews and
early Christians (see Jeremiah 29; 2 Macc 1:1–9; Acts 15:23–29).
Slide 92
LITERATURE Genre Literary Plan Outline
Slide 93
Genre While the book opens like a letter, no occasion behind the
letter is discernible, no individuals are mentioned, and there is no epistolary
ending (cf. Phil 4:10–23). The book is purposefully general and intended for a
wide audience (the 12 tribes in the Dispersion). It appears that the genre of
James is much like that of Hebrews and 1 John, namely, an essay addressing a widely
dispersed group of readers.
Slide 94
Genre The genre of James has been classified in a variety of ways:
J. H. Ropes labeled the letter a “diatribe” (i.e., a series of rhetorical
arguments). Another popular understanding of the genre of James is to classify
the letter as an exemplar of wisdom literature. Yet another proposal came from
M. Dibelius, who described James as a series of exhortations (paraenesis). A
growing preference among scholars is to classify James as an example of
protreptic literature. It may be best to understand James as a literary
circular letter with affinities to protreptic literature influenced by Jewish
wisdom literature.
Slide 95
Literary Plan There is little consensus on the structure of James.
Often this structure is identified as chiasm (an ABB’A’ pattern). The most
likely proposal views James in terms of a more linear structure in which
chapter 1 serves to introduce the major themes of the letter
Slide 96
Argument of James Introduction: Principles of Christian Living
1:1-27 [Follows Chris Miller and Robert Gromacki; http://chrismiller.cedarville.org/content/jamei.pdf; and New
Testament Survey] James immediately addresses a portion of his theme in the
second verse, namely, trials. He then moves on to the theme of overcoming
temptation and concludes by providing the solution of receiving the implanted
Word of God. In the second section of the book James will move on to applying
his three basic concerns as they are outlined in the last verses of this
section.
Slide 97
Argument of James Right Response to Testings as a Christian 1:1-12
When one encounters trials, as James' readers had, the proper response was joy.
The reason was that with proper responses to the trials, growth in faith was
the promised result. Of course, God promised to give wisdom in the midst of
trials which would give the believer direction in his difficult time. Although
James does not specify the source of that wisdom, it is ultimately to be found
through prayer and a humble reception of the word of God (1:21). The ultimate
reward for enduring trials is the crown of life.
Slide 98
Argument of James Victory in Temptation 1:13-18 James is very
clear in identifying the source of temptation. Temptation occurs when one is
dragged away by his own evil desire. A solution does exist, however, the
perfect gift which has come down from God (1:17).
Slide 99
Argument of James Victory in Temptation 1:13-18 Whether this gift
is the salvation spoken of in the next verse or the means by which it was
given, namely the Word of God, or a combination, is difficult to tell. Probably
the latter is correct: the regenerated believer who depends upon the implanted
word will have success.
Slide 100
Argument of James Obedience to the Written Word 1:19-27 At the
conclusion to this section James specifies his emphasis. He desires that all be
quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry and to accept the
implanted Word of God. If one will actually obey the Word as it is written on
the tablets of his heart, then he will be blessed in what he does (1:25).
Slide 101
Argument of James Obedience to the Written Word 1:19-27 At this
point, then, with the solution given, James throws down the gauntlet, so to
speak, issuing the challenge for believers to: 1) control their tongues,
(1:26); 2) have a genuine concern for the needy and helpless, (1:27a); and 3)
to live a life of moral and ethical purity (1:27b). This then outlines the
remaining, major portion of the book.
Slide 102
Argument of James The Application: The Development of Christian
Character 2:1-5:6 The outline for this section, just given in 1:26-27, is now
expanded and applied to the readers. James' first concern is the readers'
treatment of the needy and helpless (2:1-26). He then moves to the area of the
tongue (3:1-18) and concludes with moral and ethical purity (4:1-5:6).
Slide 103
Argument of James A Genuine Concern for the Needy and Helpless
2:1-26 James' concern here is twofold. He desires that the believers first of
all not show favoritism to the rich and secondly that they do show love to the
poor.
Slide 104
Argument of James The command to accept all men 2:1-13 The
temptation to show favoritism toward the rich for the ultimate benefit of
oneself is exposed by James here. He first gives the practical illustration of
how such errors occur and then explains the error. The irony involved is that
God has chosen the poor (whom the believers often reject) and the rich are the
ones who reject and persecute the believers! The implication of the error is
that those who break this one command have broken the whole law. This
exhortation concludes James' first concern.
Slide 105
Argument of James The command to help those in need 2:14-26 The
pastor's second concern was that the believers tangibly help those in need. He
was not content with affirmations of faith or words. He wanted actions. His
basic point seems to be that affirmation without action is worthless. Those who
would pretend to keep the whole law ought to demonstrate their faith with
concrete action.
Slide 106
Argument of James A Controlled Tongue 3:1-18 Being slow to speak
and bridling the tongue were themes hinted at in the introduction. Now James
expands on the Christian's control of his tongue, relating it to the general
area of self control. Jesus' words found in Matthew 15:11 What goes into a
man's mouth does not make him 'unclean,' but what comes out of his mouth, that
is what makes him 'unclean' seem to be very close to the author's mind.
Slide 107
Argument of James The warning: Speech is critical 3:1-2 The truth
is that our speech is very critical. It is important not only because we will
be judged by what we say but also because the tongue is an indicator of a man's
total ability to control himself.
Slide 108
Argument of James The difficulty: Impossible to control apart from
God's strength 3:3-12 The problem is that apart from God's strength, the tongue
is impossible to control. James describes the power of the tongue, and then
gives examples from everyday life proving that the tongue is often
uncontrolled.
Slide 109
Argument of James The divine provision: Wisdom from above 3:13-18
Fortunately, by thinking the thoughts which come from above there is control
over a man's innermost thoughts which his tongue eventually and inevitably
betrays. Those who will submit themselves to God's thoughts will gain control
over their tongues.
Slide 110
Argument of James A Life of Moral and Ethical Purity 4:1-5:6
Hatred, self-sufficiency and greed are James' concerns here. In the
transitional statement of 1:27 he stated the goal of this section in these
words "to keep oneself from being polluted by the world."
Slide 111
Argument of James The answer to self-centeredness: God's grace
4:1-12 The self-centeredness of a Christian demonstrates itself in at least two
ways in this section: quarrels and fights with others, and worldliness. With
both of these God is not pleased, but there is hope if one will humble himself
before God and men (4:6-10).
Slide 112
Argument of James The answer to self-sufficiency: Dependency
4:13-17 An evidence of self-sufficiency was the boasting about tomorrow. James
counsels one to realize that his life is but a vapor and to cast himself upon
the mercy of God.
Slide 113
Argument of James The answer to greed: Eternal perspective 5:1-6
Whether this section is a rebuke of the rich, unsaved oppressors of the people
which is meant to comfort the believers or is a rebuke of a worldly and
temporal attitude toward wealth on the part of the believer is difficult to
determine. The latter would be more in keeping with the theme of promoting
ethical purity among those who have the Word of God planted within them.
Slide 114
Argument of James Continuing Christian Concerns 5:7-20 James concludes
with several concerns in every time frame. He counsels patient endurance in
suffering and loving care of, and prayer for, other believers.
Slide 115
Argument of James Patient Endurance of Suffering 5:7-12 James'
counsel of endurance is illustrated by the patience of the farmer and of Job.
The readers are encouraged to stand firm and not to grumble against one another
in light of the Lord's return or at least his omnipresence.
Slide 116
Argument of James Prayer for One Another 5:13-18 The introduction,
command and illustration in this section all concern prayer. The prayer of the
righteous ones offered in faith will meet the needs of the one who is sick. It
appears that the sickness of the one in question is more emotional and
spiritual than physical. He is probably the example of one who has not been
able to endure the trials which have come his way and he is in desperate need
of encouragement and spiritual support which the elders of the church can
provide.
Slide 117
Argument of James Being a Brother's Keeper 5:19-20 Finally, the
believers are exhorted to keep a watchful eye out for one another. Whether the
reference to the erring one is a warning to keep a watch out for discouraged
brothers such as were the subject of 5:13-18 or of those who are deliberately
sinning, the point is still that the believer care for others.
Slide 118
THEOLOGY Theological Themes Contribution to the Canon
Slide 119
Theological Themes The Relationship Between Faith and Works James
2:14–26 is often interpreted as a repudiation of Paul’s doctrine of salvation
through faith alone (see Rom 3:28; Gal 2:15–16; Eph 2:8–9). Three views have
appeared in the scholarly literature: James disagreed with Paul and was seeking
to correct him (or vice versa). James corrected a misunderstanding of Paul.
James and Paul addressed two related but distinct issues.
Slide 120
Theological Themes The doctrine of justification by faith is found
elsewhere in the NT and is not limited to Paul (e.g., Heb 11:7; 1 Pet 1:3–7).
Paul’s own contention was that the Jerusalem apostles had heard his gospel and
offered him the right hand of fellowship—James included (Gal 2:9). Taken on his
own merits, James contrasted the passing with the concrete.
Slide 121
Theological Themes Wisdom and Ethics James’ entire letter is
pervaded by an emphasis on the need to deal with practical aspects of the
Christian life in a godly and wise manner including: Dealing with trials and
temptations (1:2–18) Helping those in need, such as widows and orphans
(1:19–27; see 2:14–26) Avoiding giving preferential treatment to those of a
higher socioeconomic status in society (2:1–13) Controlling one’s speech
(3:1–12) Cultivating wisdom and understanding in a variety of good works
(3:13–18) Adopting an attitude of humility in one’s dealings with others and in
the way one goes about one’s business (4:1–17) Many other practical, ethical
matters (chap. 5)
Slide 122
Theological Themes James’ ethical teaching is firmly grounded in
the teaching of Jesus, especially the Sermon on the Mount. James is also deeply
embedded in the ethical teachings of the OT, especially in wisdom literature
and here particularly in Proverbs (e.g., 4:4 citing Prov 3:34).
Slide 123
Theological Themes Jewish Christian Christology and Eschatology
The book of James refers to distinctly Christian themes explicitly less
frequently than other NT writings. In particular, many interpreters find it
significant that James only mentions the name of Christ twice (1:1; 2:1). While
infrequent, however, these references are highly significant, especially in
light of the fact that the term “Christ” is equivalent to the Hebrew Messiah.”
Like most Jews of his day, James was a committed monotheist (see 2:19; 4:11).
Slide 124
Theological Themes Not only is Jesus “Lord;” he is “our glorious
Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1). In a Jewish context, this immediately recalls the
glorious presence of God in the OT (e.g., Exod 33:18–19; 1 Kgs 8:11). James also
mentioned that there is only one judge (4:11)—an obvious reference to God—but
Jesus also has the role of divine judge (5:7, 9). James’ Christology is
strongly eschatological.
Slide 125
Contribution to the Canon An exemplar of early Jewish Christianity
written by James, the half-brother of Jesus (1:1) The relationship between
faith and works (2:14–26) The need for wisdom in the Christian life (1:5;
3:13–18)
Slide 126
Contribution to the Canon Practical exhortations related to
dealing with the rich (1:9–11; 2:1–13; 5:1–6), controlling one’s tongue
(3:1–12), humility in planning (4:13–17), and other matters The abiding
examples of OT men of faith such as Job or Elijah (5:11, 17)
Slide 127
127 The End
1.1 Theme
"The Supremacy of Christ
over OT antecedent figures
and other intermediares"
1.2 Key verses
12:1.2
Hebrews 12:1-2 (KJV)
1 Wherefore seeing
we also are
compassed about
with so great a cloud of witnesses,
let us lay aside every
weight,
and the sin which doth so easily beset us, and let us run
with patience
the race
that is set before us,
2 Looking unto Jesus
the author
and finisher of our faith;
who for the joy that was set before him endured the
cross,
despising the shame,
and is set down at the right hand
of the throne of
God.
2.1 Theme
"Faith that Works"
2.2 Key verses
2:21-22
James 2 (KJV)
21 Was not Abraham our father
justified by works,
when he had offered Isaac his son
upon the altar?
22 Seest
thou how faith wrought
with his works,
and by works was faith made perfect?
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